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+ | ====== June - The Christian Church, Watering ====== | ||
+ | ===== June 1 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Late Antiquity and Middle Ages ==== | ||
+ | === Late Antiquity Through the Middle Ages of the Christian Church Era === | ||
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+ | Late Antiquity is a periodization used by historians to describe the time of transition from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, in both mainland Europe and the Mediterranean world. Precise boundaries for the period are a matter of debate, but historian Peter Brown proposed a period between the 2nd and 8th centuries. Generally, it can be thought of as from the end of the Roman Empire' | ||
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+ | ===== June 2 ===== | ||
+ | ==== 2nd Church Council - Antioch 264-269 AD ==== | ||
+ | === The Church Council of Antioch - Christological (is Jesus really God) Controversies === | ||
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+ | The Church Council of Antioch resolving the ongoing Christological (is Jesus really God) controversies 264-269 AD. | ||
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+ | Beginning with three synods convened between 264 AD and 269 AD in the matter of Paul of Samosata, more than thirty councils were held in Antioch in ancient times. Most of these dealt with phases of the Arian and of the Christological controversies. For example, the Catholic Encyclopedia article on Paul of Samosata states: It must be regarded as certain that the council which condemned Paul rejected the term homoousios; but naturally only in a false sense used by Paul; not, it seems because he meant by it a unity of Hypostasis in the Trinity (so St. Hilary), but because he intended by it a common substance out of which both Father and Son proceeded, or which it divided between them, — so St. Basil and St. Athanasius; but the question is not clear. The objectors to the Nicene doctrine in the fourth century made copious use of this disapproval of the Nicene word by a famous council. | ||
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+ | The most celebrated took place in the summer of 341 AD at the dedication of the golden Basilica, and is therefore called in encaeniis, in dedicatione. Nearly a hundred bishops were present, all from the Orient, but the bishop of Rome was not represented. The emperor Constantius attended in person. | ||
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+ | The council approved three creeds. Whether or not the so-called " | ||
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+ | The twenty-five canons adopted regulate the so-called metropolitan constitution of the church. Ecclesiastical power is vested chiefly in the metropolitan (later called archbishop), | ||
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+ | The numerous objections made by eminent scholars in past centuries to the ascription of these twenty-five canons to the synod in encaeniis have been elaborately stated and probably refuted by Hefele. The canons formed part of the Codex canonum used at Chalcedon in 451 AD and passed over into the later collections of East and West. | ||
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+ | **Note:** the enormous success of the Church Council in Antioch so completely educated the Church Clergy and common Church laity that the heretic fringe [i.e. Desert Monks, hermits] rather than dispute with the clergy and laity chose instead the option of fleeing into the desert in order to preserve their heretical teachings while waiting for assistance from Rome to provide them the legal protection that they would need in order to further infiltrate the Christian Church. The legal protection came in 313 AD (Edict of Milan) from Emperor Constantine and with it the heretical desert Monks then proceeded back into society to infiltrate the Church. At first achieving only minimal success in infiltrating the Church with their strange and heretical doctrines forcing the Desert Monks to seek more success in infiltrating the ecclesiastical educational system. Later with the wide acceptance of the writings and teachings of the Dominican Monk Thomas Aquinas (1225 - 1274 AD) the Christian Church would become almost completely infiltrated with heretical [Emergent; Gnostic, worldly and occult] philosophies and doctrines. | ||
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+ | ===== June 3 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Desert Fathers ==== | ||
+ | === Anthony the Great launches the Desert Monk Monastic Movement in about 270 AD === | ||
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+ | Paul of Thebes is often credited with being the first hermit monk to go to the desert, but it was Anthony the Great who launched the movement that became the Desert Fathers. Sometime around 270 AD, Anthony heard a Sunday sermon stating that perfection could be achieved by selling all of one's possessions, | ||
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+ | The Desert Fathers (there were also Desert Mothers) were Christian hermits, ascetics, and monks who lived mainly in the Scetes desert of Egypt beginning around the third century AD. The Apophthegmata Patrum is a collection of the wisdom of some of the early desert monks and nuns, still in print as Sayings of the Desert Fathers. The most well known was Anthony the Great, who moved to the desert in 270–271 and became known as both the father and founder of desert monasticism. By the time Anthony died in 356, thousands of monks and nuns had been drawn to living in the desert following Anthony' | ||
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+ | The desert monastic communities that grew out of the informal gathering of hermit monks became the model for Christian monasticism. The eastern monastic tradition at Mt. Athos and the western Rule of St. Benedict both were strongly influenced by the traditions that began in the desert. All of the monastic revivals of the Middle Ages looked to the desert for inspiration and guidance. Much of Eastern Christian spirituality, | ||
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+ | ===== June 4 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Desert Monks of Sinai, Egypt ==== | ||
+ | === The Ancient Desert Monks of Sinai, Egypt === | ||
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+ | The small communities forming around the Desert Fathers were the beginning of Christian monasticism. Initially Anthony and others lived as hermits, sometimes forming groups of two or three. Small informal communities began developing, until the monk Pachomius, seeing the need for a more formal structure, established a monastery with rules and organization. His regulations included discipline, obedience, manual labor, silence, fasting, and long periods of prayer — some historians view the rules as being inspired by Pachomius' | ||
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+ | The first fully organized monastery under Pachomius included men and women living in separate quarters, up to three in a room. They supported themselves by weaving cloth and baskets, along with other tasks. Each new monk or nun had a three year probationary period, concluding with admittance in full standing to the monastery. All property was held communally, meals were eaten together and in silence, twice a week they fasted, and they wore simple peasant clothing with a hood. Several times a day they came together for prayer and readings, and each person was expected to spend time alone meditating on the scriptures. Programs were created for educating those who came to the monastery unable to read. | ||
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+ | Pachomius also formalized the establishment of an abba (father) or amma (mother) in charge of the spiritual welfare of their monks and nuns, with the implication that those joining the monastery were also joining a new family. Members also formed smaller groups, with different tasks in the community and the responsibility of looking after each other' | ||
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+ | As more pilgrims began visiting the monks in the desert, the early literature coming from the monastic communities began spreading. Latin versions of the original Greek stories and sayings of the Desert Fathers, along with the earliest monastic rules coming out of the desert, guided the early monastic development in the Byzantine world and eventually in the western Christian world. The Rule of Saint Benedict was strongly influenced by the Desert Fathers, with Saint Benedict urging his monks to read the writings of John Cassian on the Desert Fathers. The Sayings of the Desert Fathers was also widely read in the early Benedictine monasteries. | ||
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+ | **Heretical, | ||
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+ | "A hermit said, 'Take care to be silent. Empty your mind [spiritually dangerous]. Attend to your meditation in the fear of God, whether you are resting or at work. If you do this, you will not fear the attacks of the demons." | ||
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+ | Abba (father) Moses, "Sit in thy cell and thy cell will teach thee all." | ||
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+ | " | ||
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+ | "He (Evagrius) also said, 'A monk was told that his father had died. He said to the messenger, 'Do not blaspheme. My Father cannot die.'" | ||
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+ | Abbot Pastor, "If someone does evil to you, you should do good to him, so that by your good work you may drive out his malice." | ||
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+ | An Elder, "A man who keeps death before his eyes will at all times overcome his cowardliness." | ||
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+ | Blessed Macarius said, "This is the truth, if a monk regards contempt as praise, poverty as riches, and hunger as a feast, he will never die." | ||
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+ | "It happened that as Abba Arsenius was sitting in his cell that he was harassed by demons. His servants, on their return, stood outside his cell and heard him praying to God in these words, 'O God, do not leave me. I have done nothing good in your sight, but according to your goodness, let me now make a beginning of good.'" | ||
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+ | When one desert father told another of his plans to “ shut himself into his cell and refuse the face of men, that he might perfect himself,” the second monk replied, “Unless thou first amend thy life going to and fro amongst men, thou shall not avail to amend it dwelling alone.” | ||
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+ | **Note:** it should be noted that the ancient desert hermits and monks, possibly knowingly, sought their " | ||
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+ | ===== June 5 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Cyprian Bishop of Carthage 248-258 AD ==== | ||
+ | === Moving from the Early Apostolic Church to the Modern Institutional Church === | ||
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+ | Recap -- Cyprian was Bishop of Carthage during the development of a lot of the Early Church doctrines and pseudo doctrines and particularly church customs, i.e. church and salvation are found in a building. | ||
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+ | His most important work is his "De unitate ecclesiae." | ||
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+ | **Cyprian Bishop of Carthage** | ||
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+ | Cyprian was born sometime in the early third century. He was a leading member of legal fraternity in Carthage, He was well into middle age when he was converted to Christianity and baptised. The site of his eventual martyrdom was his own villa. Before becoming a Christian, he was an orator, " | ||
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+ | His original name was Thascius; he took the additional name Caecilius in memory of the presbyter to whom he owed his conversion. In the early days of his conversion he wrote an Epistola ad Donatum de gratia Dei and the Testimoniorum Libri III that adhere closely to the models of Tertullian, who influenced his style and thinking. | ||
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+ | Cyprian (200 AD – September 14, 258 AD) was Bishop of Carthage and an important Early Christian writer, many of whose Latin works are extant [remain currently in existence]. He was born around the beginning of the 3rd century in North Africa, perhaps at Carthage, where he received a classical education. After converting to Christianity, | ||
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+ | Not long after his baptism he was ordained deacon, and soon afterward presbyter; and sometime between July 248 and April 249 AD he was chosen bishop of Carthage, a popular choice among the poor who remembered his patronage as demonstrating good equestrian style, while a portion of the presbytery opposed it, for all Cyprian' | ||
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+ | Soon, however, the entire community was put to an unwanted test. Christians in North Africa had not suffered persecution for many years; the church was assured and lax. Early in 250 AD the " | ||
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+ | It is quite evident in the writings of the church fathers from various dioceses that the Christian community was divided on this occasion, among those who stood firm in civil disobedience, | ||
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+ | Cyprian' | ||
+ | The Plague of Cyprian is named after him due to his description of it. | ||
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+ | ===== June 6 ===== | ||
+ | ==== The Original NT Pentecost ==== | ||
+ | === The Original NT Acts 2 Pentecost === | ||
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+ | With our example of the original Holy Week Resurrection Day (Easter, Feast of First-fruits) on Sunday April 18th, then continuing in our example the original NT Pentecost (Acts chapter 2) would be on Sunday June 6th, a full 50 days [7 weeks plus 1 day] after the " | ||
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+ | were all filled [baptized - empowered] with the Holy Spirit, and [as empowered] began to speak with other tongues, as the Spirit gave them utterance. ~ Acts 2: | ||
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+ | **Note:** the future, yet to be fulfilled [2nd Coming] Fall Feasts of Israel are now posted in December somewhat later than when the Fall Feasts are usually scheduled to be observed. | ||
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+ | **Also Note:** the Christian Church and the Jewish religion calculate the Feast Days differently so Holy Week and Pentecost are usually on slightly different days than the Jewish Feast Days of Passover (Holy Week) and Shavuot (Pentecost). The Fall Feasts [Feast of Trumpets (Rosh Hashanah), Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), and Feast of Tabernacles (Sukkot)] having not yet been completely prophetically fulfilled by Jesus Christ are not yet observed by the Christian Church. | ||
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+ | ===== June 7 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Emperor Constantine - Church ==== | ||
+ | === Emperor Constantine' | ||
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+ | **Constantine the Pseudo Christian Emperor** | ||
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+ | When Roman Emperor Constantine the Great (reigned 306–337 AD) ruled Rome, Christianity became the dominant religion of the Roman Empire. Historians remain uncertain about Constantine' | ||
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+ | Constantine' | ||
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+ | Constantine is perhaps best known for being the first Christian Roman emperor. | ||
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+ | In February 313 AD, Constantine met with Licinius in Milan, where they developed the Edict of Milan. The edict stated that Christians should be allowed to follow the faith without oppression. This removed penalties for professing Christianity, | ||
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+ | **Note:** in this portion of the devotional we will continue to consider the events more in their order of magnitude and not strictly in historical order. Also this is not a conclusive list of Early Church Fathers or events. | ||
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+ | ===== June 8 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Emperor Constantine - State ==== | ||
+ | === Emperor Constantine' | ||
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+ | In the East - Later Called Byzantium | ||
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+ | Constantine received a formal education at Diocletian' | ||
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+ | Constantine had returned to Nicomedia from the eastern front by the spring of 303, in time to witness the beginnings of Diocletian' | ||
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+ | It is unlikely that Constantine played any role in the persecution. In his later writings he would attempt to present himself as an opponent of Diocletian' | ||
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+ | On 1 May 305, Diocletian, as a result of a debilitating sickness taken in the winter of 304–5, announced his resignation. In a parallel **ceremony in Milan** [Italy], Maximian did the same. Lactantius states that Galerius manipulated the weakened Diocletian into resigning, and forced him to accept Galerius' | ||
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+ | Some of the ancient sources detail plots that Galerius made on Constantine' | ||
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+ | In the West - Europe | ||
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+ | Constantine recognized the implicit danger in remaining at Galerius' | ||
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+ | Early rule | ||
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+ | Constantine' | ||
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+ | In Rome | ||
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+ | Constantine entered Rome on 29 October. He staged a grand adventus in the city, and was met with popular jubilation. Maxentius' | ||
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+ | ===== June 9 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Emperor Constantine - Personal ==== | ||
+ | === Emperor Constantine' | ||
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+ | Constantine the Great (Latin: Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus; February 27, 272 – May 22, 337 AD), also known as Constantine I or Saint Constantine, | ||
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+ | As emperor, Constantine enacted many administrative, | ||
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+ | The age of Constantine marked a distinct epoch in the history of the Roman Empire. He built a new imperial residence at Byzantium and named it New Rome. However, in Constantine' | ||
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+ | Constantine - as the first Christian emperor - is a significant figure in the history of Christianity. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, built on his orders at the purported site of Jesus' tomb in Jerusalem, became the holiest place in Christendom. The Papacy claimed temporal power through Constantine. He is venerated as a saint by Orthodox Christians, Byzantine Catholics, and Anglicans. The Eastern churches hold his memory in particular esteem, regarding Constantine as isapostolos or equal-to-apostles. | ||
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+ | Constantine died May 22, 337 AD at Nicomedia, shortly after his baptism by the Arian bishop, his friend Eusebius of Beirut. | ||
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+ | **Note:** Emperor Constantine the Great (Constantine I) died May 22, 337 A.D. at Nicomedia [in northern Turkey], shortly after his baptism by the Arian bishop, his friend Eusebius of Beirut [Lebanon]. The body of Constantine was then buried in Constantinople at the Church of the Apostles in a crypt specifically built for Constantine. For centuries the body of Constantine has been missing and exactly what has happened to his body is unclear today. | ||
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+ | ===== June 10 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Constantius Chlorus ==== | ||
+ | === Constantine' | ||
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+ | Constantius I, commonly known as Constantius Chlorus, was Roman Emperor from 293 to 306 AD. He was the father of Constantine the Great and founder of the Constantinian dynasty. As Caesar he defeated the usurper Allectus in Britain and campaigned extensively along the Rhine frontier, defeating the Alamanni and Franks. Upon becoming Augustus in 305, Constantius launched a successful punitive campaign against the Picts beyond the Antonine Wall. However, Constantius died suddenly in Eburacum (York) the following year. His death sparked the collapse of the tetrarchic system of government inaugurated by the Emperor Diocletian. | ||
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+ | In 305 AD Constantius crossed over into Britain, travelled to the far north of the island and launched a military expedition against the Picts, claiming a victory against them and the title Britannicus Maximus II by 7 January 306. After retiring to Eboracum (York) for the winter, Constantius had planned to continue the campaign, but on 25 July 306, Constantius died. As he was dying, Constantius recommended his son to the army as his successor; consequently Constantine was declared emperor by the legions at York. | ||
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+ | As the father of Constantine, | ||
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+ | Believing that water baptism cleansed one from all sins [if you sin again you would eventually have to be baptized again] Constantius died shortly after his appointed water baptism by an Arian [heretical] bishop. | ||
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+ | ===== June 11 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Saint Helena ==== | ||
+ | === Constantine' | ||
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+ | Saint Helena or Saint Helen (250 – 330 AD) was the consort of the Roman emperor Constantius Chlorus and the mother of the emperor Constantine the Great, an important figure in the history of Christianity. She is traditionally credited with a pilgrimage to Syria Palaestina, during which she discovered the True Cross of Jesus' | ||
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+ | Constantius was either married to, or was in concubinage with, Helena, who was probably from Nicomedia in Asia Minor. They had one son, Constantine. In 289 AD political developments forced him to divorce Helena. He married Theodora, Maximian' | ||
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+ | Helena, claimed during her visit to Jerusalem to have found the True Cross of Jesus Christ. | ||
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+ | Scholars debate whether Constantine adopted his mother St. Helena' | ||
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+ | Saint Catherine' | ||
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+ | Constantine appointed his mother Helena as Augusta Imperatrix, and gave her unlimited access to the imperial treasury in order to locate the relics of Judeo-Christian tradition. In 326-28 AD Helena undertook a trip to the Holy Places in Palestine [Israel]. According to Eusebius of Caesarea she was responsible for the construction or beautification of two churches, the Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem, and the Church on the Mount of Olives, sites of Christ' | ||
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+ | Jerusalem was still being rebuilt following the destruction caused by Emperor Hadrian. He had built a temple over the site of Jesus' | ||
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+ | Helena left Jerusalem and the eastern provinces in 327 to return to Rome, bringing with her large parts of the True Cross and other relics, which were then stored in her palace' | ||
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+ | Tradition says that the site of the Vatican Gardens was spread with earth brought from Golgotha by Helena to symbolically unite the blood of Christ with that shed by thousands of early Christians, who died in the persecutions of Nero. | ||
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+ | According to one tradition, Helena acquired the Holy Tunic on her trip to Jerusalem and sent it to Trier. | ||
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+ | According to Byzantine tradition, Helena is responsible for the large population of cats in Cyprus. Local tradition holds that she imported hundreds of cats from Egypt or Palestine in the fourth century AD to rid a monastery of snakes. The monastery is today known as "St. Nicholas of the Cats" and is located near Limassol. | ||
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+ | Several relics purportedly discovered by Saint Helena are now in Cyprus, where she spent some time. Among them are items believed to be part of Jesus Christ' | ||
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+ | ===== June 12 ===== | ||
+ | ==== In This Sign (X-P) Conquer ==== | ||
+ | === Conquer what? The Christian Church is mostly what Constantine conquered === | ||
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+ | War against Maxentius - The Roman Emperor from 306 to 312 AD | ||
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+ | By the middle of 310 AD, Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics. His final act survives: a letter to the provincials posted in Nicomedia on 30 April 311, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, | ||
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+ | Constantine' | ||
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+ | Constantine' | ||
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+ | The Battle of the Milvian Bridge by Giulio Romano | ||
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+ | Maxentius organized his forces—still twice the size of Constantine' | ||
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+ | **Note:** Constantine adopted a Chi-Rho (Christ) symbol as his new cross yet, there are two Christs there is Jesus Christ of the Cross and Fish [ichthus] symbols and there is also the coming Antichrist. What Christ was Constantine really serving? | ||
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+ | ===== June 13 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Thomas Aquinas ==== | ||
+ | === Thomas Aquinas, Synthetized Aristotelian (Plato) Philosophy with Christianity === | ||
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+ | Thomas Aquinas, (1225 AD – March 7, 1274 AD), was an Italian Dominican friar and priest and an immensely influential philosopher and theologian in the tradition of scholasticism, | ||
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+ | He was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology, and the father of Thomism. His influence on Western thought is considerable, | ||
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+ | Thomas is honored as a saint by the Catholic Church and is held to be the model teacher for those studying for the priesthood, and indeed the highest expression of both natural reason and speculative theology. In modern times, under papal directives, the study of his works was long used as a core of the required program of study for those seeking ordination as priests or deacons, as well as for those in religious formation and for other students of the sacred disciplines (Catholic philosophy, theology, history, liturgy, and canon law). | ||
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+ | Also honored as a Doctor of the Church, Thomas is considered the Church' | ||
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+ | **Note:** the misplaced doctrines, teaching and unchecked corruption that Thomas Aquinas introduced and facilitated within the Christian Church would lead directly to the 1517 AD Protestant Reformation. | ||
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+ | **Also Note:** the heretic Valentinus is considered to be possibly the most dangerous heretic in Church History for attempting in part to introduce the philosophy of Plato into the Christian Church. Thomas Aquinas introduces the philosophy of Plato' | ||
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+ | ===== June 14 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Reformation Bibles ==== | ||
+ | === Reformation Bibles i.e. The Geneva Bible and The KJV 1611 Bible === | ||
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+ | **The Geneva Bible** | ||
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+ | The Geneva Bible is one of the most historically significant translations of the Bible into English, preceding the King James translation by 51 years. It was the primary Bible of 16th century Protestantism and was the Bible used by William Shakespeare, | ||
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+ | This version of the Holy Bible is significant because, for the very first time, a mechanically printed, mass-produced Bible was made available directly to the general public which came with a variety of scriptural study guides and aids (collectively called an apparatus), which included verse citations which allow the reader to cross-reference one verse with numerous relevant verses in the rest of the Bible, introductions to each book of the Bible which acted to summarize all of the material that each book would cover, maps, tables, woodcut illustrations, | ||
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+ | Because the language of the Geneva Bible was more forceful and vigorous, most readers preferred this version strongly over the Great Bible. In the words of Cleland Boyd McAfee, "it drove the Great Bible off the field by sheer power of excellence" | ||
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+ | Like most English translations of the time, the Geneva Bible was translated from scholarly editions of the Greek New Testament and the Hebrew Scriptures that comprise the Christian Old Testament. The English rendering was substantially based on the earlier translations by William Tyndale and Myles Coverdale (more than 80 percent of the language in the Geneva Bible is from Tyndale). However, the Geneva Bible was the first English version in which all of the Old Testament was translated directly from the Hebrew. | ||
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+ | **The KJV (AV) 1611 Bible** | ||
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+ | The King James Version (KJV), commonly known as the Authorized Version (AV) or King James Bible (KJB), is an English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England begun in 1604 and completed in 1611 AD. First printed by the King's Printer Robert Barker, this was the third translation into English to be approved by the English Church authorities. The first was the Great Bible commissioned in the reign of King Henry VIII (1535), and the second was the Bishops' | ||
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+ | The Authorized Version (AV) was meant to replace the Bishops' | ||
+ | |||
+ | In the 1662 Book Of Common Prayer, the text of the Authorized Version finally supplanted that of the Great Bible in the Epistle and Gospel readings – though the Prayer Book Psalter nevertheless continues in the Great Bible version. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The case was different in Scotland, where the Geneva Bible had long been the standard church bible. It was not until 1633 that a Scottish edition of the Authorized Version was printed – in conjunction with the Scots coronation in that year of Charles I. The inclusion of illustrations in the edition raised accusations of Popery from opponents of the religious policies of Charles and William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury. However, official policy favored the Authorized Version, and this favor returned during the Commonwealth – as London printers succeeded in re-asserting their monopoly of Bible printing with support from Oliver Cromwell – and the "New Translation" | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | **Note:** the continuous infiltration of corrupt and heretical material i.e. Valentinus, Constantine, | ||
+ | |||
+ | **Also Note:** the excellent Protestant Bibles of the Reformation era have been the primary remedy to the bad doctrine of the heavily infiltrated Church. But, note also that today with the newer corrupt bible versions (NIV, ESV) and the abundant heretical doctrines of the Modern Protestant Church [and Reformed " | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== June 15 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Edict of Toleration ==== | ||
+ | === Edict of Toleration by Galerius in 311 AD === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The Edict of Toleration was issued in 311 AD in Nicomedia by the Roman Tetrarchy [power-sharing] of Galerius, Constantine and Licinius, officially ending the Diocletian persecution of Christianity. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Galerius, who had been one of the leading figures in the persecutions, | ||
+ | |||
+ | Christianity [and all religions were] officially legalized in the Roman Empire two years later in 313 AD by Constantine in his Edict of Milan. | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== June 16 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Edict of Milan ==== | ||
+ | === The Edict of Milan by Emperor Constantine in 313 AD === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The Edict of Milan | ||
+ | |||
+ | The document known as the Edict of Milan (Edictum Mediolanense) is found in Lactantius' | ||
+ | |||
+ | In February 313 AD, Emperor Constantine I, who controlled the western part of the Roman Empire, and Licinius, who controlled the Balkans, met in Milan and, among other things, agreed to treat the Christians benevolently. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Whether or not there was a formal 'Edict of Milan' is debatable. The version found in Lactantius is not in the form of an edict; it is a letter from Licinius to the governors of the provinces in the Eastern Empire he had just conquered by defeating Maximin later in the same year and issued in Nicomedia. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The Edict was in effect directed against Maximinus Daia, the Caesar in the East who was at that time styling himself as Augustus. Having received the emperor Galerius' | ||
+ | |||
+ | The Edict is popularly thought to concern only Christianity, | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== June 17 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Emperor Julian ==== | ||
+ | === Emperor Julian the Apostate === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Emperor Constantine' | ||
+ | |||
+ | Following Constantine' | ||
+ | |||
+ | Constantius II was the last of the three sons of Constantine to remain in power, he was repalced by his cousin Julian. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Emperor Julian - last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire - 361 to 363 AD | ||
+ | |||
+ | Julian (Latin: Flavius Claudius Julianus Augustus, 331/332 AD – June 26, 363 AD), also known as Julian the Apostate, as well as Julian the Philosopher, | ||
+ | |||
+ | A member of the Constantinian dynasty, Julian became Caesar over the western provinces by order of Constantius II in 355 and in this role campaigned successfully against the Alamanni and Franks. Most notable was his crushing victory over the Alamanni in 357 at the Battle of Argentoratum despite being outnumbered. In 360 in Lutetia (Paris) he was acclaimed Augustus by his soldiers, sparking a civil war between Julian and Constantius. Before the two could face each other in battle, however, Constantius died, after naming Julian as his rightful successor. In 363, Julian embarked on an ambitious campaign against the Sassanid Empire. Though initially successful, Julian was mortally wounded in battle and died shortly thereafter. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Julian was a man of unusually complex character: he was "the military commander, the theosophist, | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== June 18 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Emperor Theodosius I ==== | ||
+ | === Emperor Theodosius I (Theodosius the Great) issued decrees that effectively made Nicene Christianity the official state church of the Roman Empire === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Theodosius I (Latin: Flavius Theodosius Augustus; January 11, 347 – January 17, 395 AD), also known as Theodosius the Great, was Roman Emperor from 379 to 395. Theodosius was the last emperor to rule over both the eastern and the western halves of the Roman Empire. His social transformation was a pivotal, if under-recognized, | ||
+ | |||
+ | He also issued decrees that effectively made Nicene Christianity the official state church of the Roman Empire. and he neither prevented nor punished the destruction of prominent Hellenistic temples of classical antiquity, including the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, the Serapeum in Alexandria. He dissolved the order of the Vestal Virgins in Rome. In 393, he banned the pagan rituals of the Olympics in Ancient Greece. It was not until the end of the 19th century, in 1896, that Olympics were held again. After his death, Theodosius' | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== June 19 ===== | ||
+ | ==== 3rd Church Council - Nicene Council ==== | ||
+ | === Nicene Council the 3rd Historical Church Council was held in 325 AD === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The Council of Nicaea (Turkish: Iznik) was a council of Christian bishops convened in Nicaea in Bithynia by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in 325 AD. This first [Reviesd-Rome, | ||
+ | |||
+ | Constantine had invited all 1800 bishops of the Christian church (about 1000 in the east and 800 in the west), but a smaller and unknown number attended. Eusebius of Caesarea counted 250 Attendees, Athanasius of Alexandria counted 318 Attendees, and Eustathius of Antioch estimated "about 270" Attendees (all three were present at the council). Later, Socrates Scholasticus recorded more than 300 Attendees, and Evagrius, Hilary of Poitiers, Jerome Dionysius Exiguus, and Rufinus recorded 318 Attendees. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The First Council of Nicaea was the first ecumenical council of the Church. Most significantly, | ||
+ | |||
+ | The council settled, to some degree, the debate within the Early Christian communities regarding the divinity of Christ. This idea of the divinity of Christ, along with the idea of Christ as a messenger from God (The Father), had long existed in various parts of the Roman empire. The divinity of Christ had also been widely endorsed by the Christian community in the otherwise pagan city of Rome. The council affirmed and defined what it believed to be the teachings of the Apostles regarding who Christ is: that Christ is the one true God in deity with the Father. | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | **Note:** Emperor Constantine was trying to influence and infiltrate Arian heresy into the Christian Church. The Church didn’t need a council [that’s why so few Bishops actually showed up] in order to proclaim the already established Church’s Triune doctrine of God. It was Emperor Constantine who needed the council in order to attempt to legitimize his heresy. Thankfully the council stood strong in the faith and neglected to provide Emperor Constantine with the heretical endorsement that he sought and continued to pursue throughout the rest of his life. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== June 20 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Athanasius of Alexandria ==== | ||
+ | === Athanasius the Great " | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Saint Athanasius of Alexandria (about 296 AD - May 2, 373 AD), also called Athanasius the Great, Athanasius the Confessor or, primarily in the Coptic Orthodox Church, Athanasius the Apostolic, was the twentieth bishop of Alexandria (as Athanasius I). His episcopate lasted 45 years (c. 8 June 328 – 2 May 373), of which over 17 were spent in five exiles ordered by four different Roman emperors. He is considered to be a renowned Christian theologian, a Church Father, the chief defender of Trinitarianism against Arianism, and a noted Egyptian leader of the fourth century. | ||
+ | |||
+ | He is remembered for his role in the conflict with Arius and Arianism. In 325, at the age of 27, Athanasius had a leading role against the Arians in the First Council of Nicaea. At the time, he was a deacon and personal secretary of the 19th Bishop of Alexandria, Alexander. Nicaea was convoked by Constantine I in May–August 325 to address the Arian position that the Son of God, Jesus of Nazareth, is of a distinct substance from the Father. | ||
+ | |||
+ | In June 328 AD, at the age of 30, three years after Nicea and upon the repose of Bishop Alexander, he became archbishop of Alexandria. He continued to lead the conflict against the Arians for the rest of his life and was engaged in theological and political struggles against the Emperors Constantine the Great and Constantius II and powerful and influential Arian churchmen, led by Eusebius of Nicomedia and others. He was known as " | ||
+ | |||
+ | Athanasius is counted as one of the four great Eastern Doctors of the Church in the Roman Catholic Church and in Eastern Orthodoxy, he is labeled the " | ||
+ | |||
+ | **Athanasius' | ||
+ | |||
+ | St Athanasius' | ||
+ | |||
+ | First exile: under **Emperor Constantine**, | ||
+ | Second exile: under Emperor Constantius, | ||
+ | Third exile: under Emperor Constantius, | ||
+ | Fourth exile: under Apostate Emperor Julian, 10 months [24 Oct 362 – 5 Sep 363]; in the Egyptian desert\\ | ||
+ | Fifth exile: under Emperor Valens, 4 months [5 Oct 365 – 31 Jan 366]; in his father' | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== June 21 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Ambrose ==== | ||
+ | === Ambrose - Archbishop of Milan - Father of Modern Christianity === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Aurelius Ambrosius, better known in English as Saint Ambrose (340 AD – 4 April 397 AD), was an **Archbishop of Milan, Italy** who became one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. He was consular prefect of Liguria and Emilia, headquartered in Milan, before being made Bishop of Milan by popular acclamation in 374 AD. Ambrose was a [Trinitarian in doctrine and] staunch opponent of Arianism. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Ambrose was one of the four original doctors of the [Roman Catholic] Church, and is the patron saint of Milan. He is notable for [baptizing St. Augustine and] his influence on St. Augustine. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Ambrose ranks with Augustine, Jerome, and Gregory the Great [Pope Gregory I], as one of the Latin Doctors of the [Roman Catholic] Church. Theologians compare him with Hilary [Pope from 461-468 AD], who they claim fell short of Ambrose' | ||
+ | |||
+ | Ambrose' | ||
+ | |||
+ | Soon after acquiring the undisputed possession of the Roman empire, **Theodosius [Roman Emperor Theodosius I]** died at Milan in 395 AD, and two years later (April 4, 397 AD) Ambrose also died. He was succeeded as Bishop of Milan by ["old but good"] Simplician (320-401 AD). Ambrose' | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
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+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== June 22 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Augustine ==== | ||
+ | === Saint Augustine of Hippo (Annaba, Algeria) === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Augustine of Hippo (Latin: Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis; | ||
+ | |||
+ | According to his contemporary, | ||
+ | |||
+ | When the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, | ||
+ | |||
+ | In the Catholic Church and the Anglican Communion, he is a saint, a pre-eminent Doctor of the Church, and the patron of the Augustinians. His memorial is celebrated on 28 August, the day of his death. He is the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, | ||
+ | |||
+ | In the Eastern Orthodox Church, many of his teachings are not accepted. This is the same in the Oriental Orthodox communion. The most important doctrinal controversy surrounding his name is the filioque. Other doctrines that are sometimes unacceptable to the Eastern Orthodox Church are his view of original sin, the doctrine of grace, and predestination. Nonetheless, | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
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+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== June 23 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Jerome ==== | ||
+ | === Saint Jerome translated a version of the Bible into Latin (the Vulgate) using the unstable Alexandrian Greek Text === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Saint Jerome (Latin: Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus) lived 347 AD – September 30, 420 AD. Was a Latin Christian priest, confessor, theologian and historian, who also became a Doctor of the Church. He was the son of Eusebius, of the city of Stridon, on the border of Dalmatia and Pannonia. He is best known for his translation of the Bible into Latin (the Vulgate), and his commentaries on the Gospel of the Hebrews. His list of writings is extensive. | ||
+ | |||
+ | He is recognised as a saint by the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Lutheran Church, and the Church of England (Anglican Communion). Jerome is commemorated on 30 September with a memorial. | ||
+ | |||
+ | At the Catechetical School of Alexandria, Jerome listened to the catechist Didymus the Blind expounding the prophet Hosea and telling his reminiscences of Anthony the Great, who had died 30 years before; he spent some time in Nitria, admiring the disciplined community life of the numerous inhabitants of that "city of the Lord," but detecting even there " | ||
+ | |||
+ | For the next 15 years, until he died, Jerome produced a number of commentaries on Scripture, often explaining his translation choices in using the original Hebrew rather than suspect translations. His patristic commentaries align closely with Jewish tradition, and he indulges in allegorical and mystical subtleties after the manner of Philo and the Alexandrian school. Unlike his contemporaries, | ||
+ | |||
+ | Jerome is the second most voluminous writer (after St. Augustine) in ancient Latin Christianity. In the Roman Catholic Church, he is recognized as the patron saint of translators, | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== June 24 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Ancient Library of Alexandria ==== | ||
+ | === The Ancient Library of Alexandria, Egypt === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Ancient Library of Alexandria, in Alexandria, Egypt, was one of the largest and most significant libraries of the ancient world. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty and functioned as a major center of scholarship from its construction in the 3rd century BC until the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. With collections of works, lecture halls, meeting rooms, and gardens, the library was part of a larger research institution called the Musaeum of Alexandria, where many of the most famous thinkers of the ancient world studied. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The library was conceived and opened either during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter (323–283 BC) or during the reign of his son Ptolemy II (283–246 BC). As a symbol of the wealth and power of Egypt, it employed many scribes to borrow books from around the known world, copy them, and return them. Most of the books were kept as papyrus scrolls, and though it is unknown how many such scrolls were housed at any given time, their combined value was incalculable. | ||
+ | |||
+ | The library is famous for having been burned, resulting in the loss of many scrolls and books, and has become a symbol of the destruction of cultural knowledge. | ||
+ | |||
+ | **Ancient sources differ widely on who is responsible for the destruction and when it occurred** | ||
+ | |||
+ | Although there is a mythology of the burning of the Library at Alexandria, the library may have suffered several fires or acts of destruction over many years. Possible occasions for the partial or complete destruction of the Library of Alexandria include a fire set by Julius Caesar in 48 BC, an attack by Roman Emperor Aurelian in the 270s AD [the most probable timeframe of destruction - though probably later from anarchy or natural causes - Aurelian did not write or mention any knowledge of the library burning during his time there], the decree of Coptic Pope Theophilus in 391 AD, and the Muslim conquest of Egypt in 642 AD. | ||
+ | |||
+ | After the main library was fully destroyed, ancient scholars used a " | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | **Rumored Destructions of the Library of Alexandria** | ||
+ | |||
+ | The Burning of the Library at Alexandria in 391 AD, an illustration from ' | ||
+ | |||
+ | The famous burning of the Library of Alexandria, including the incalculable loss of ancient works, has become a symbol of the irretrievable loss of public knowledge. Although there is a mythology of "the burning of the Library at Alexandria", | ||
+ | |||
+ | During Caesar' | ||
+ | |||
+ | When the enemy endeavored to cut off his communication by sea, he was forced to divert that danger by setting fire to his own ships, which, after burning the docks, thence spread on and destroyed the great library. — Plutarch, Life of Caesar | ||
+ | |||
+ | Bolstering this claim, in the 4th century both the pagan historian Ammianus and the Christian historian Orosius wrote that the Bibliotheca Alexandrina had been destroyed by Caesar' | ||
+ | |||
+ | The library seems to have continued in existence to some degree until its contents were largely lost during the taking of the city by the Emperor Aurelian (270–275 AD), who was suppressing a revolt by Queen Zenobia of Palmyra. During the course of the fighting, the areas of the city in which the main library was located were damaged. Some sources claim that the smaller library located at the Serapeum survived, though Ammianus Marcellinus wrote of the library in the Serapeum temple as a thing of the past, destroyed when Caesar sacked Alexandria. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Paganism was made illegal by an edict of the Emperor Theodosius I in 391 AD. The temples of Alexandria were closed by Patriarch Theophilus of Alexandria in AD 391. The historian Socrates of Constantinople describes that all pagan temples in Alexandria were destroyed, including the Serapeum. Since the Serapeum housed a part of the Great Library, some scholars believe that the remains of the Library of Alexandria were destroyed at this time. However, it is not known how many, if any, books were contained in it at the time of destruction, | ||
+ | |||
+ | In 642 AD, Alexandria was captured by the Muslim army of Amr ibn al `Aas. Several later Arabic sources describe the library' | ||
+ | |||
+ | **Legacy** | ||
+ | |||
+ | Although the various component parts of the physical library were destroyed, in fact the centers of academic excellence had already moved to various capital cities. Furthermore, | ||
+ | |||
+ | **Modern Day** | ||
+ | |||
+ | In 2002, the Bibliotheca Alexandrina was inaugurated near the site of the ancient library, intended as a commemoration and emulation of the Royal Library of Alexandria. | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== June 25 ===== | ||
+ | ==== The Apostles Creed ==== | ||
+ | === The Apostles Creed about 180 AD === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The Apostles' | ||
+ | |||
+ | It is widely used by a number of Christian denominations for both liturgical and catechetical purposes, most visibly by liturgical Churches of Western tradition, including the Roman Church, Lutheranism, | ||
+ | |||
+ | The Apostles' | ||
+ | |||
+ | The first mention of the expression " | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | **The Apostles Creed about 180 AD** | ||
+ | |||
+ | I believe in God, the Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth; | ||
+ | |||
+ | I believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord. He was conceived by the power of the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary. He suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died, and was buried. He descended to the dead. On the third day he rose again. He ascended into heaven, and is seated at the right hand of Father. He will come again to judge the living and the dead. | ||
+ | |||
+ | I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy catholic Church, the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting. Amen. | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
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+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== June 26 ===== | ||
+ | ==== The Nicene Creed 325 AD ==== | ||
+ | === The Nicene Creed 381 AD - Modified 325 AD Creed === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | The Nicene Creed (381 AD) is the " | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | **The Nicene Creed 381 AD (Nicene Creed 325 AD slightly modified)** | ||
+ | |||
+ | We believe in one God the Father, the Almighty, creator of heaven and earth, and of all that is, seen and unseen. | ||
+ | |||
+ | We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son of God, eternally begotten of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, of one being with the Father. Through him all things were made. For us men and for our salvation he came down from heaven; by the power of the Holy Spirit he became incarnate from the Virgin Mary, and was made man. For our sake he was crucified under Pontius Pilate; he suffered death and was buried. On the third day he rose again in accordance with the Scriptures; he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end. | ||
+ | |||
+ | We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father (and the Son). With the Father and the Son he is worshipped and glorified. He has spoken through the Prophets. | ||
+ | |||
+ | We believe in one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church. We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. Amen. | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== June 27 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Athanasian Creed ==== | ||
+ | === Athanasian Creed about 480 AD === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Origins of the Athanasian Creed | ||
+ | |||
+ | In fact, it was not originally called a creed at all, nor was Athanasius' | ||
+ | |||
+ | The creed originally was most likely written in Latin, while Athanasius composed in Greek\\ | ||
+ | Neither Athanasius nor his contemporaries ever mention the Creed\\ | ||
+ | It is not mentioned in any records of the ecumenical councils\\ | ||
+ | It appears to address theological concerns that developed after Athanasius died (including the filioque)\\ | ||
+ | It was most widely circulated among Western Christians | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | **Athanasian Creed about 480 AD** | ||
+ | |||
+ | Whosoever will be saved, before all things it is necessary that he hold the catholic faith. Which faith except every one do keep whole and undefiled; without doubt he shall perish everlastingly. And the catholic faith is this: That we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; Neither confounding the Persons; nor dividing the Essence. For there is one Person of the Father; another of the Son; and another of the Holy Ghost. But the Godhead of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, is all one; the Glory equal, the Majesty coeternal. Such as the Father is; such is the Son; and such is the Holy Ghost. The Father uncreated; the Son uncreated; and the Holy Ghost uncreated. The Father unlimited; the Son unlimited; and the Holy Ghost unlimited. The Father eternal; the Son eternal; and the Holy Ghost eternal. And yet they are not three eternals; but one eternal. As also there are not three uncreated; nor three infinites, but one uncreated; and one infinite. So likewise the Father is Almighty; the Son Almighty; and the Holy Ghost Almighty. And yet they are not three Almighties; but one Almighty. So the Father is God; the Son is God; and the Holy Ghost is God. And yet they are not three Gods; but one God. So likewise the Father is Lord; the Son Lord; and the Holy Ghost Lord. And yet not three Lords; but one Lord. For like as we are compelled by the Christian verity; to acknowledge every Person by himself to be God and Lord; So are we forbidden by the catholic religion; to say, There are three Gods, or three Lords. The Father is made of none; neither created, nor begotten. The Son is of the Father alone; not made, nor created; but begotten. The Holy Ghost is of the Father and of the Son; neither made, nor created, nor begotten; but proceeding. So there is one Father, not three Fathers; one Son, not three Sons; one Holy Ghost, not three Holy Ghosts. And in this Trinity none is before, or after another; none is greater, or less than another. But the whole three Persons are coeternal, and coequal. So that in all things, as aforesaid; the Unity in Trinity, and the Trinity in Unity, is to be worshipped. He therefore that will be saved, let him thus think of the Trinity. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Furthermore it is necessary to everlasting salvation; that he also believe faithfully the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ. For the right Faith is, that we believe and confess; that our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, is God and Man; God, of the Essence of the Father; begotten before the worlds; and Man, of the Essence of his Mother, born in the world. Perfect God; and perfect Man, of a reasonable soul and human flesh subsisting. Equal to the Father, as touching his Godhead; and inferior to the Father as touching his Manhood. Who although he is God and Man; yet he is not two, but one Christ. One; not by conversion of the Godhead into flesh; but by assumption of the Manhood by God. One altogether; not by confusion of Essence; but by unity of Person. For as the reasonable soul and flesh is one man; so God and Man is one Christ; Who suffered for our salvation; descended into hell; rose again the third day from the dead. He ascended into heaven, he sitteth on the right hand of the God the Father Almighty, from whence he will come to judge the living and the dead. At whose coming all men will rise again with their bodies; And shall give account for their own works. And they that have done good shall go into life everlasting; | ||
+ | |||
+ | < | ||
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+ | < | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | ===== June 28 ===== | ||
+ | ==== Pope Leo I ==== | ||
+ | === Pope Leo I first modern Pope, first to have been called "the Great" === | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Pope Leo I (400 – November 10, 461 AD), also known as Saint Leo the Great, was Pope from September 29, 440 AD to his death in 461 AD. | ||
+ | |||
+ | He was an Italian aristocrat, and was the first pope to have been called "the Great" | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | Teachings on Christ | ||
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+ | Leo's writings (both the sermons and the letters) are mostly concerned with theological questions concerning the person of Jesus Christ (Christology) and his role as mediator and savior (Soteriology). This is partially connected to the Council of Chalcedon in which Roman legates participated in Leo's name. Subsequently, | ||
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+ | The Apostle Peter and his Heir | ||
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+ | Leo contributes to the development of the doctrine on papal primacy, based on his personal devotion to St Peter and on the veneration for the Apostle and his tomb in Rome. Besides recourse to biblical language, Leo also describes his own special relationship with St Peter in terms derived from Roman law. He calls himself the (unworthy) heir and deputy (vicarius) of Peter, having received his apostolic authority and being obliged to follow his example. On the one hand, Peter stands before him with a claim on how Leo is to exercise his office; on the other hand, Leo, as the Roman bishop, represents the Apostle, whose authority he holds. Christ, however, always comes out as the source of all grace and authority, and Leo is responsible to him for how he fulfills his duties (cf. sermon 1). Peter is indeed the example for Leo's relationship to Christ. Thus, the office of the Roman bishop, with its universal significance, | ||
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+ | Dispute with Dioscorus of Alexandria | ||
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+ | In 445 AD, Leo disputed with Patriarch Dioscorus, St. Cyril' | ||
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+ | ===== June 29 ===== | ||
+ | ==== King Charlemagne ==== | ||
+ | === King Charlemagne (Charles I) - The Father of Modern Europe === | ||
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+ | Charlemagne (about 742 – January 28, 814 AD), also known as Charles the Great or Charles I, was the King of the Franks from 768 AD, the King of Italy from 774 AD, and from 800 AD the first emperor in western Europe since the collapse of the Western Roman Empire three centuries earlier. The expanded Frankish state he founded is called the Carolingian Empire. | ||
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+ | The oldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon, Charlemagne became king in 768 following the death of his father. He was initially co-ruler with his brother Carloman I. Carloman' | ||
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+ | Called the " | ||
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+ | Charlemagne died in 814 AD, having ruled as emperor for just over thirteen years. He was laid to rest in his imperial capital of Aachen in today' | ||
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+ | ===== June 30 ===== | ||
+ | ==== The Domesday Book ==== | ||
+ | === The Domesday Book of 1086 AD === | ||
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+ | Domesday Book is a [taxation] manuscript that records the great survey of much of England and parts of Wales completed in 1086 AD. The survey was executed for William I of England (William the Conqueror): "While spending the Christmas time of 1085 AD in Gloucester, William had deep speech with his counsellors and sent men all over England to each shire to find out what or how much each landholder had in land and livestock, and what it was worth" - Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. | ||
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+ | One of the main purposes of the survey was to determine who held what and what taxes had been liable under Edward the Confessor; the judgment of the Domesday assessors was final—whatever the book said about who held the material wealth or what it was worth was the law, and there was no appeal. It was written in Latin, although there were some vernacular words inserted for native terms with no previous Latin equivalent, and the text was highly abbreviated. Richard FitzNigel, writing around the year 1179 AD, stated that the book was known by the English as " | ||
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+ | for as the sentence of that strict and terrible last account cannot be evaded by any skillful subterfuge, so when this book is appealed to ... its sentence cannot be put quashed or set aside with impunity. That is why we have called the book 'the Book of judgment' | ||
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+ | **Note:** this is a dramatic change in the dynamics of the modern Nation State. Previous to the era of the Domesday Book governments were generally friendly and supportive of their citizens. After the time of the Domesday Book, a document compiled in order to facilitate the pillage of its own citizens, the relationship between government and those governed has become more adversarial. | ||
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